Bartlett 

Applied Psychology uses psychological methods and findings to explore possible solutions to particular practical human problems. The term 'applied psychology' covers a very wide range of perspectives, techniques, and methodologies. \nIn World War I, psychometric tests were used in the United States to enable the rapid selection and placement of new recruits in the armed forces. In the Second World War, governments employed psychologists to help in personnel selection, changing public attitudes, propaganda, and the treatment of trauma. 

Education. This term originally comes from the Latin educere, meaning to 'draw out from within'. Thence follows the concept of a teacher as a facilitator, helping his or her students to make connections with the material they are exposed to. Education has a quite distinct meaning from training, in that the latter is explicitly focused on developing an ability towards a specific practical application, whereas the former consists of a wider, more general development of the mind, which hopefully will fit its owner to be able to cope with the demands of an ever-changing environment. 

World War I (1914 - 1918). Psychology was first used widely in the First World War in 1917, when mass psychometric testing was carried out by the US Army. Psychologists also studied 'shell shock' or war neuroses (later recognised as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder or PTSD)\nIt could be argued that applied psychology was effectively born during World War I. For instance, studies of fatigue in munitions factories were the first major industrial psychology studies to be conducted. Psychologists also worked on specific programs, like for instance, the selection of hydrophone operators best suited for 'hearing submarines'. According to Hearnshaw (The Shaping of Modern Psychology, 1989), the work of psychologists during World War I “helped to establish the claims of applied psychology, and led to its continuation on a still small, but nevertheless significant, scale” (p. 200). Written by: Course Team 

Cognitive psychology explores cognitive processes such as perception, problem solving, and memory, usually making use of behavioural data. Methodologically, cognitive psychology marked a clear break with behaviourism in once again making the mind a legitimate focus of study in psychology, instead of insisting on observing only external behaviours. Cognitive psychologists felt that higher cognitive processes such as language and thinking could not be given satisfactory explanations simply in terms of stimulus-response relationships (no matter how complex). Learning depends not just on the kind of experiences we have, but also on our own abilities to process the information we receive, and link it to previous knowledge. While attempting to keep the behaviourist insistence on careful, replicable experimental methodology, cognitive psychologists developed ingenious new methods of gathering data. Cognitive psychology can be seen as a subset of 'cognitive science', which comprises any discipline that studies cognition scientifically. This can include linguistics, psychology, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) as well as other disciplines. Cognitive science can be contrasted with neuroscience, in that cognitive science can be seen as essentially trying to map the brain's software (e.g. computer programs), with neuroscience examining the brain's hardware (e.g. the electronic circuitry in a computer). This computer metaphor is an appropriate one, as it is not an accident that cognitive psychology arose at about the same time as rapid developments in computing technology (and some associated theoretical developments in mathematics, such as Claude Shannon's pioneering work in information theory). Computers provided an irresistible metaphor for the workings of the mind (much as at-the-time cutting-edge technologies such as hydraulics had done for Freud 70 or more years earlier), helping introduce an information processing approach to studying psychology. Many researchers found their thinking greatly stimulated by the presence of this machine metaphor (and some of its associated mathematics). Some researchers, however, go a step further, arguing that people literally are machines of a certain sort. In the memorable phrase of the AI researcher Marvin Minsky, the brain can be seen as a 'computer made of meat'. In the cognitive perspective, information is assumed to be received via senses (such as sight, hearing, or touch). This information is further processed in various ways, with the resulting outputs used to guide future action and behaviour. Cognitive psychologists try to describe what is 'in the head' (i.e., what is called the mind) in terms of function (i.e. what the mind does) and process (how the mind does what it does) often without specifying in detail how these functions and processes are physically represented in terms of actual brain structure. For example, memory could be described in terms of what is (and what isn't) remembered, and factors influencing this. Perception could be described in terms of what people perceive, when they perceive it, and issues such as how prior knowledge influences what we perceive. Our everyday practical use and understanding of complex systems like computers, televisions and cars is mostly based at these levels of function and process. As I write this document now, I know exactly how to change the format or the typeface, but have little idea of how the underlying electronic pathways of the computer produce these functions. Nor do I need to know this, to operate the word-processing function effectively. Similarly, even a four year old child could know how to use the computer for certain purposes, but have virtually no understanding of how this function is physically achieved. This is not necessary, in order to be effective (though such knowledge may be very useful if the computer breaks down in some way! It is neuropsychology/neuropsychiatry that helps in the diagnosis, and sometimes the cure, of organic brain disorders, seen in this metaphor as 'hardware' problems. However, it should also be added that some cognitive psychologists are also interested in the underlying neural structures [e.g. the role of the hippocampus in episodic memory ). Cognitive psychology's strategy of trying to understand the mind in terms of its functions and processes is therefore not so far removed from our level of understanding of other complex systems. As well as studying processes such as perception and memory, at the level of the individual, some cognitive psychologists turned towards the study of social cognition(e.g. how human beings use cognitive processes to make sense of social situations). A particular impetus for this came from the work of the cognitive psychologist Ulric Neisser, who suggested that cognitive psychologists shouldn't just confine themselves to (possibly quite artificial) laboratory-based studies, but should 'understand cognition as it occurs in the ordinary environment and in the context of natural purposeful activity' (Neisser, 1976, 'Cognition and Reality' p 7). Neisser argued that cognitive psychologists should undertake research which had much higher 'ecological validity', i.e. was much more relevant to the everyday lives of people in the real world (and the kinds of information and cognitive processing that arose in such contexts). Such research now plays a much more central role within cognitive psychology. 

Occupational/Organisational. This approach is a branch of applied psychology that looks at people's performance and well-being in work environments, and at factors affecting their capacity to function effectively. 

Memory refers to our capacity to store and retrieve information. It also refers to the experience of recalling the past, in terms of images, sounds, tastes, ideas, people, and so on. Psychologists often divide memory into a number of different types. For example, short-term memory is used to refer to items recalled in the past ten or fifteen seconds, as in reading a phone number from a list, and holding it in memory long enough to make a call. This type of memory is also referred to as working memory, because of its use in holding material in temporary stores for the purposes of mental arithmetic (or similar types of processing). This type of memory is usually lost within a short period (e.g. 30 seconds), unless some kinds of special strategy are used.Long-term memory, in contrast, refers to memories that can be recalled after much longer periods: days, months, or years. Long-term memory itself can be broken up into a number of different types of memory. Semantic memory, the memory of the meanings and functions of things, is usually distinguished from episodic memory, the memory of particular events. 

World War II (1939-1945). The Second World War had two main effects on the development of psychology. Firstly, a diaspora of Jewish intellectuals from Europe arrived in Great Britain and the United States, and secondly, psychological research was funded, and used extensively during the war.\n\n1. The diaspora. The diaspora refers to the scattering of Jewish people around the world before, during and following the Second World War. This scattering of intellectuals had a pronounced effect, not because of the psychologists who fled, but also because of the many US or UK psychologists who came into contact with many new ideas for the first time. This included not only fellow psychologists, but also philosophers, linguists and novelists. As well as the Jewish diaspora, a large number of gentile intellectuals also left Germany and mainland Europe before and during the war, often for New York or London, where they interacted and greatly influenced the existing scholars. According to Peter Robinson, who edited a volume of essays dedicated to Henri Tajfel “…it is thanks to the émigrés of Henri's generation that the field gained a foothold in the academic world” (Robinson, 1996, p. xi). 2. Applications of psychology. Unlike the First World War, when the application of psychology began only towards the end, psychology was used almost immediately from the beginning of World War II. Also, unlike World War I, where most psychological input was in the selection of recruits or treatment of 'shell shock', during World War II psychologists contributed in a variety of different areas. For instance, psychologists worked on: • Personality psychometrics – Psychologists devised tests used for the selection of 'officer material' and in the main combatant forces. In the UK, the War Office Selection Boards were set up in 1942 for this purpose, and by 1945 some 100,000 applicants for officer rank had been psychometrically tested. Also, during the war factor analytic techniques first applied on a mass scale – for instance, H.J. Eysenck studied 700 patients at the Mill Hill Emergency Hospital during the war. This research was the basis for his subsequent theory of personality. • Psychiatric disabilities of war – For instance, work at the Tavistock Clinic on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and Psychoanalytic theories. • Attitude research - large research programs on attitude change and persuasion were funded by the American Army during the war. Related research on leadership and group behaviour was also extensively funded during this period. • Interaction with equipment – World War II was unique in its reliance on human operation of new technology, in areas as diverse as air traffic control, radar or code breaking. This led to psychological research into topics such as vigilance, training, stress and decision making. During this time, some old concepts (e.g. attention) were investigated with new vigour, while new concepts (e.g. stress) were developed as explanatory concepts. • The rapid development of neuropsychology in the 1950s was very much based on studies of combat victim's head wounds and their subsequent psychological functioning. Written by: Course Team 

Perception is a very broad term, which covers all those cognitive/brain processes involved in receiving and interpreting information about our environment, via one of the sense organs. For example, vision involves an experience of objects in three dimensions, with a sense of how far they are from us, how large they are, how fast they are moving, and many other factors.Perception involves a complex chain of processing by the brain. The raw stimuli produced by sense organs such as eyes and ears is organised and interpreted by increasingly more complex brain processes into more holistic perceptions of objects having a certain size, distance, colour etc. The actual human experience of perception doesn't just involve receiving a series of disconnected visual or auditory impulses: a great deal of brain processing goes into organising this material into coherent entities. For example, instead of seeing a series of disconnected black and white stripes and blobs, there might be a perception of your cat leaping towards you. Some psychologists have tried to simulate perception via computer models (sometimes embodied in simple robots), and this has shown what complex processes perception involves.